MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

https://doi.org/10.47193/mafis.3612023010104

ABSTRACT. This study sought to present the evolutions and new trends of migrant fishing tar-

geting small pelagics in West Africa from fishing to consumption stage. The work involved the char-

acterization of migrant fishers targeting small pelagics in West Africa (country of origin, fishing

gear and target species), modalities of access to resources, estimation of their catches and finally the

assessment of the impact in the host countries. This work was useful to analyse changes in terms of

the actors involved, the volumes and values of catches, and forms of valorisation and marketing of

products from the migrant sectors over the period 2008-2018. Overall, the quantities of pelagic fish

caught by migrant fishermen were increasing. The production of small pelagic by migrant fisheries

has almost doubled over a decade, from an estimated of 180,000 t over the period 2008-2012, to a

current estimated production of almost 324,500 t. More than 50% of this production was sold on the

market in fresh or frozen form. More than 75,000 t (22%) and 94,000 t (28%) were destined for arti-

sanal and industrial processing, respectively. Migrant fisheries thus supply more to industrial pro-

cessing than to artisanal processing. Indeed, migrant fisheries have contributed over the last ten

years to the emergence of fishmeal factories in West Africa. However, despite their significant evo-

lution in terms of catch volumes and values, migrant fisheries still operate outside of legislative

frameworks and without being explicitly accounted for in national statistics. Moreover, conflicts are

increasingly important given the current tensions and issues surrounding the exploitation of small

pelagic fish in West Africa. This work recommends the development of a common management plan

for migrant fishers in the countries of the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC) and the West

Central Gulf of Guinea Fisheries Committees (WCGC).

Key words: Fisheries, impact, management, politics, added value.

Migración de pescadores artesanales en la pesquería de pequeños peces pelágicos en África

Occidental: tendencias actuales y desarrollo

RESUMEN. Este estudio buscó presentar las evoluciones y las nuevas tendencias de la pesca

migratoria dirigida a los pequeños peces pelágicos en África Occidental desde los caladeros de

pesca hasta los centros de consumo. El trabajo consistió en caracterizar a los pescadores migrantes

que se dirigen a estas pesquerías en África Occidental (país de origen, artes de pesca y especies

objetivo), presentando las modalidades de acceso a los recursos, estimando sus capturas y evaluando

*Correspondence:

bara.deme@port.ac.uk

Received: 22 May 2022

Accepted: 5 October 2022

ISSN 2683-7595 (print)

ISSN 2683-7951 (online)

https://ojs.inidep.edu.ar

Journal of the Instituto Nacional de

Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero

(INIDEP)

This work is licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License

Marine and

Fishery Sciences

MAFIS

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Migration of artisanal fishers targeting small pelagics in West Africa:

current trends and development

EL HADJ BARA DÈME1, *, YAYO AMALATCHY2, RAUL THOMAS JUMPE3, ASSANE DEDA FALL4, WALY BOCOUM1,

MOUSTAPHA DÈME5, PIERRE FAILLER1, MOHAMED SOUMAH6, MOMODOU SIDIBEH7, IDRISSA DIÉDHIOU5,

SIMON AHOUANSOU MONTCHO8, ANTAYA MARCH1and GRÉGOIRE TOURON-GARDIC1

1Blue Governance Research Centre (CBG), Faculty of Economics and Law, University of Portsmouth UoP, Portsmouth, P01 3DE, United

Kingdom. 2Centre de Recherche Océanographique (CRO), Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. 3Centre d’Investigation et des Recherches Appliquées

(CIPA), Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. 4Mauritanian Institute of Oceanographic Research and Fisheries (IMROP), Nouadhibou, Mauritania. 5Institut

Sénégalais de Recherche Agricole (ISRA), Centre de Recherche Océanographique de Dakar-Thiaroye (CRODT), Pôle de Recherche de Hann,

Dakar, Sénégal. 6Centre National des Sciences Halieutiques de Boussoura (CNSHB), Conakry, Guinea. 7Fisheries Department, Banjul,

Gambia. 8University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin. ORCID El hadj Bara Dème https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6536-867X

INTRODUCTION

Migratory fisheries in West Africa are increas-

ingly intensifying without this being explicitly

being accounted for in national statistics and in

the design of regional fisheries management poli-

cies (Failler and Binet 2010; Binet et al. 2013;

Failler et al. 2020). This intensification is more

pronounced in the capture of small pelagics.

Thus, the production of migrant fishers targeting

small pelagics is increasingly important. Produc-

tion has nearly doubled over a decade, rising

from an estimated 180,200 t between 2008-2012

to more than 324,000 t between 2014-2018, jus-

tified by the multi-use nature of small pelagics

(Dème et al. 2022a). Indeed, they constitute the

raw material for artisanal and industrial process-

ing, and largely dominate the consumption and

export market. As such, more than 48% of pro-

duction is destined for fish trade, 30% for indus-

trial processing and less than 22% for artisanal

processing (Corten et al. 2017). The share allo-

cated to the fishmeal industry is increasingly sig-

nificant given the progressive establishment of

fishmeal industries in Mauritania, Senegal and

the Gambia (Corten et al. 2017). At the same

time, the demand for fishmeal has increased in

Ghana, Nigeria, Asian and European countries

(Corten et al. 2017; Belhabib et al. 2018; Asiedu

et al. 2022a, 2022b). Consequently, migrant fish-

ers would contribute significantly to the emer-

gence of fishmeal factories in West Africa. In

addition, consumer demand continues to increase

in line with the rapid population growth in West

African countries. All these factors result into the

growth in catches of migrant small pelagic fish.

Despite their importance, catches are not consid-

ered either in the fishing countries or in the coun-

tries of repatriation of the fish. Moreover, despite

the important work that has been carried out in

recent decades, there are still no specific policies

and measures for the management of migratory

fisheries at the country level, let alone at the

regional level.

The objective of this study was to present the

evolution of migrant fishermen targeting small

pelagics in West Africa from fishing to consump-

tion stage. This perspective of evolution and com-

parison was made possible by synthesizing previ-

ous work on migrant fishing in West Africa (Seck

2014; Failler et al. 2020; Dème et al. 2021a;

Failler and Ferraro 2021; Sall et al. 2021; Wany-

onyi et al. 2021; Asiedu et al. 2022a). The present

work thus offers a much more consistent set of

data than previous work on migratory fisheries

(Dème et al. 2021b; Ly and David 2021; Nunan

32 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

el impacto en los países anfitriones. Este trabajo permitió analizar los cambios en cuanto a los actores involucrados, los volúmenes y

valores de las capturas, así como las formas de valorización y comercialización de los productos de los sectores migrantes durante el

período 2008-2018. En general, las cantidades de peces pelágicos capturados por los pescadores migrantes están aumentando. La pro-

ducción de las pesquerías migratorias de estos pequeños peces pelágicos casi se ha duplicado en una década, desde un promedio de

180.000 t durante el período 2008-2012, a una producción promedio actual de casi 324.500 t. Más de 50% de esta producción se vende

en el mercado en forma fresca o congelada. Más de 75.000 t (23%) y 94.000 t (28%) se destinaron al procesamiento artesanal e industrial,

respectivamente. Así, las pesquerías migratorias suministran más al procesamiento industrial que al procesamiento artesanal.

Consecuentemente, las pesquerías migratorias han contribuido en los últimos diez años al surgimiento de fábricas de harina de pescado

en África Occidental. Además, su contribución a las economías locales es cada vez más importante. Sin embargo, a pesar de su impor-

tante evolución en términos de volúmenes y valores de captura, las pesquerías migratorias todavía operan fuera de los marcos legislativos

y no son contabilizadas explícitamente en las estadísticas nacionales. Además, los conflictos son cada vez más profundos dadas las ten-

siones actuales y los problemas que rodean la explotación de pequeños peces pelágicos en África Occidental. Este trabajo recomienda

el desarrollo de un plan de gestión común para los pescadores migrantes en los países de la Comisión Subregional de Pesca (SRFC) y

los Comités de Pesca del Golfo de Guinea Centro-Occidental (WCGC).

Palabras clave: Pesquerías, impacto, manejo, política, valor agregado.

2021). It also provides a much clearer overview

and a wider geographical coverage (countries) in

order to understand the evolution of migrants’

fishers in West Africa in terms of volume, product

marketing and the actor’s incentives. The article

also addresses the urgent need to develop specific

management policies for migrant fisheries in a

context of growing demand, fishing overcapacity,

rife IUU fishing and the vulnerability of small

pelagics to climate change.

Background to the research

Synthesis of knowledge on migrant fisheries in

West Africa

First of all, it is important to precise that this

work refers to the regional migration of artisanal

fishers. Several factors influence this migration

of fishers (Asiedu et al. 2022a). Scientific litera-

ture shows that artisanal fishers migrate in

search of abundant fish and for the development

of their economic network (Ba et al. 2017; Dème

et al. 2021a; Failler and Ferraro 2021; Nunan

2021; Wanyonyi et al. 2021; Sall et al. 2021).

According to several studies on migrant fishers,

this activity can be defined as the voluntary

movement of fishermen from one country to

another or from one Economic Exclusive Zone

(EEZ) to another for ecological (abundant

resources) and economic (profitability of fish-

ing) reasons (Binet et al. 2013; Asiedu et al.

2022b; Dème et al. 2022b). Characterizing and

analysing migratory fishing is not a systematic

work in the various countries of the West African

coast. This shows the opacity that characterizes

migrant fishing, with its non-inclusion in fish-

eries statistics and public policies at national and

regional level, despite important research carried

out on the issue.

Since the 1980s, studies on the migratory

dynamics of West African artisanal fishermen

have followed one another with added value

aimed at producing a sustained and exhaustive

scientific knowledge of the issue (Binet et al.,

2010). Scientific literature shows that the migra-

tory movements of West African artisanal fisher-

men have, since the end of the 19th century, been

driven by the Saint Louisians, Lebous and

Nyominkas of Senegal, the Temnes of Sierra

Leone and the Fantis of Ghana (Bethemont 2000;

Chauveau et al. 2000). Indeed, the seaway played

an important role in the development of the West

African informal economy in the 1980s and

1920s (Binet et al. 2010). This new economic

boom allowed artisanal fishermen to identify suit-

able fishing grounds and to intensify shipping

along the West African coast. As a result, artisanal

fisheries landings boomed at the end of the 19th

century and the beginning of the 20th (Bethe-

mont, 2000). They supplied national (especially

the expanding urban centres) and regional mar-

kets (in the coastal areas where economic activity

is concentrated). Artisanal fishing, which until

then had been practiced in the ‘historic’ maritime

centres (Wolofs1and Lebous2of northern Sene-

gal, Nyominkas of the Saloum), was partially

relocated to these new economic zones along the

coast. These ethnic groups thus ensured the bulk

of the pirogue fisheries of Mauritania, Senegal

and the Gambia, and were part of the fishing

migrations along the entire African Atlantic

coastline (Binet et al. 2010; Chauveau et al.

2000). Gradually (in the middle of the 20th cen-

tury), the existing diverse ethnic migrants’ fish-

ers’ groups were enriched by those of the Soussou

of Guinea, the Diolas3of Casamance and the

indigenous fishermen of the Gambia River as

well as the Wolofs of N’Diago in Mauritania

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

1The Wolof’s are a typical Senegambian ethnic group. They are the majority in Senegal where there represent almost half of the popula-

tion and are the third place in Gambia with 15% of the inhabitants.

2The Lebous are part of the Wolof community in Senegal. Traditionally fishers but also farmers, they are concentrated in the Cape Verde

peninsula (Dakar) which they occupied when the first settlers arrived in the region.

3The Diolas are a Senegalese ethnic group located mostly in the south of the country in Casamance.

(Failler et al. 2020; Dème et al. 2021b; Failler and

Ferraro 2021). Chauveau et al. (2000) has shown

that the development of the exchange economy

from 1920 to 1940 was decisive in the develop-

ment of migrant fishing. In this regard, the study

underscores that migration intensified with the

development of the exchange economy on the

coasts and the arrival of new fishermen in the sec-

tor, influenced by migrant fishermen working in

their traditional fishing area. This period was

marked by a complexification and intensification

of migrations leading to the constitution of real

migrant fishing hubs in the West African space as

a place of settlement, but also of transit and

departure (Binet et al. 2010; Seck 2014; Ly and

David 2021). It also led to the enlargement of the

migratory spaces for the most experienced fisher-

men (Senegalese and Leoneans) (Wanyonyi et al.

2021). Then, the industrialization of production,

the attainment of independence and the emer-

gence of national economies marked years 1940-

1980 (Chauveau et al. 2000; Binet et al. 2010;

Failler and Ferraro 2021). The events of West

African history and the main milestones in the

history of fisheries exploitation have shaped the

migration processes and their distribution areas

(Cinner et al. 2012; Dème et al. 2019, 2021a).

At the beginning of the 21st century, work

began to identify these migratory movements and

to quantify for the first time the volumes and val-

ues of catches (Failler et al. 2020). It was found

that West African migrants fishers accounted for

more than 20% of catches in the EEZs of coastal

countries without this being explicitly considered

in national statistics (Failler et al. 2020; Dème et

al. 2021a). From this point of view, migrant fish-

ing is similar to illegal, unreported and unregulat-

ed (IUU) fishing (Failler et al. 2020; Failler and

Ferraro 2021). Most of the work concludes with

policy recommendations to integrate migrant

fishing into regional fisheries management poli-

cies. However, no progress has been made in this

direction, despite the fact that the new uses of

pelagic fish, particularly for industrial processing,

have intensified these migratory movements and

the quantities caught. While this has led States to

develop measures to provide access to resources

for migrant fishermen, nothing has been done to

take them into account in national statistics, or to

develop specific policies and measures for

migrant fisheries (Failler et al. 2020).

Exploitation dynamics of small pelagic resources

in West Africa: fishing units, actors and market,

legislation

Small pelagic fish are the most exploited

species in West African coastal areas in terms of

tonnage (Asiedu et al. 2022a, 2022b; Failler

2014). The main pelagic stocks exploited on a

regional scale are sardines (Sardinella aurita and

S. maderensis), mackerel (Scomber scombrus)

and Ethmalosa (Ethmalosa fimbriata) (Chou-

velon et al. 2015; Ba et al. 2017; Corten et al.

2017; Brochier et al. 2018; Dème et al. 2021c,

2022a; Asiedu et al. 2022b). These species are

mainly exploited in West Africa by an artisanal

fleet (purse seine and encircling gillnet) and an

industrial fleet (pelagic sardine and trawlers,

seiners) (Belhabib et al. 2018). Policies for the

exploitation of small pelagics vary from country

to country. While Senegal4has opted for the

exclusive exploitation of small pelagic resources

by nationals, this is not the case in other coastal

countries which have signed agreements with for-

eign fleets (Dème et al. 2021b).

Beyond fishing units, several actors are

involved in the distribution of pelagic fish in West

Africa. Fishermen (artisanal or industrial/nation-

al, migrant or foreign) catch resources. The fish-

mongers ensure wholesale sales and supply the

countries’ export markets. On a smaller scale,

there may also be micro fishmongers who take

over and make the fish available to households,

often within the country. Pelagic fish is the raw

34 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

4Senegal has not granted any fishing opportunities to foreign fleets since 2012 (Dème et al. 2021a).

material for artisanal and industrial processing

and is the main source of protein for West African

populations. In frozen form, small pelagic fish are

exported to African, European and Asian coun-

tries (Dème et al. 2021c; Soumah et al. 2021;

Asiedu et al. 2022b; Touron-Gardic et al. 2022).

With the transfer of technology, artisanal process-

ing techniques are similar and are done with

smoking ovens (Moity-Maïzi 2006; Diouf et al.

2022). The processing sector is largely dominated

by women (Durand 1981; Moity-Maïzi 2006). All

these actors use a large unskilled workforce to

support them (Ba et al. 2017).

In terms of legislation, although some coun-

tries such as Mauritania, Senegal and the Gambia

have initiated specific management plans for

small pelagics, their implementation is confront-

ed with financial and technical constraints (Dème

and Thiao 2021). Overall, in coastal West African

countries, management measures are based main-

ly on zoning, minimum landing sizes for certain

species, mesh size regulations, protection of cer-

tain species, licensing systems and closed sea-

sons. Current legislation prohibits certain types of

fishing that are harmful to resources and natural

habitats (Binet et al. 2013).

Framework of the study

This study covers eight West African countries

that are members of the two sub-regional fish-

eries commissions, namely the Sub-Regional

Fisheries Commission (SRFC) and the Fisheries

Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea

(FCWC) (Figure 1). In the SRFC area, the study

included Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bis-

sau and Mauritania, while in the FCWC region, it

covers Benin, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and

Ghana. The undeniable weight of these countries

in the West African fishing economy makes them

a relevant scale of study for the analysis of migra-

tory movements of fishers in West Africa (Figure

1). Moreover, the scientific literature has shown

that movements of great importance in terms of

volume and value of fish caught take place

between these countries (Dème et al. 2021a;

Failler et al. 2021).

Furthermore, the focus of this study on small

pelagics is explained by the importance of this

resource in West Africa (Chouvelon et al. 2015;

Ba et al. 2017; Dème et al. 2021c, 2022b; Asiedu

et al. 2022b). The only available statistics of

small pelagics from West Africa indicates that

landings reached 1.7 million t in 2014, which rep-

resented 70% of the total declared catch (Failler

2014). The upwelling and cold-water upwelling

zones of the Canary Current and the Benguela

Current explain the abundance and wide distribu-

tion of pelagic fish on the West African coast

(Failler 2014; Dème and Failler 2022; March and

Failler 2022; Touron-Gardic et al. 2022) (Figure

1). Several observations, such as those in FAO

Area 34, show causal links between upwelling

and the abundance of small pelagic species

(Thiaw et al. 2017). Scientific literature has

shown that upwelling is positive for the develop-

ment of small pelagics, supporting particularly

productive areas in West Africa (Auger et al.

2016; Pincinato et al. 2020). For example, off

Ghana and Ivory Coast, sardines catches are high-

er during the cold season and are correlated with

the intensity of the upwelling at that time (Thiaw

et al. 2017). At the scale of SRFC countries, the

catch per unit effort of Sardine is also related to

an upwelling index. Small pelagics thus seek

optimal conditions of temperature and food avail-

ability (Brehmer et al. 2019). In other words, an

intensification of the upwelling increases the

quantity of plankton, which improves the feeding

and survival conditions of the larvae, and there-

fore their recruitment (Diankha et al. 2015;

Brochier et al. 2018; Mouget et al. 2022). This

leads them to make significant migrations on a

regional scale. Thus, because of their migratory

nature, these resources are generally shared by

many countries. Fishermen also seem to follow

this migration of small pelagic fish by moving

into various Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)

to catch them.

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

This study covers eight West African countries

that are members of the two sub-regional fish-

eries commissions, namely the Sub-Regional

Fisheries Commission (SRFC) and the Fisheries

Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea

(FCWC) (Figure 1). In the SRFC area, the study

included Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bis-

sau and Mauritania, while in the FCWC region, it

covers Benin, Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and

Ghana. Fishermen from Sierra Leone were inter-

viewed at their area of activity, e.g. Guinea and

Guinea-Bissau. So, it was not necessary to cover

Sierra Leone, especially as it has not hosted

migrant fishers in their waters since the civil war.

Field surveys

Latest data on migrant fisheries date back to

2012 (Failler et al. 2020). Thus, updating this data

necessitated conducting field activities in the var-

ious countries of departure and reception of fish-

ermen, more precisely in the various fishing cen-

36 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

Figure 1. Framework of the study, identification of particularly productive areas and migratory small pelagic fisheries in West

Africa, as well as estimation of catch volumes based on literature and field surveys.

tres of West Africa coastal countries. Research

institutions5from different countries covered by

the study facilitated the data collection process.

The data collection activity was carried out over

two years (September 2019-September 2021).

Nearly 300 people were interviewed for this work

in fishing ports in the migrant fishers’ home and

host countries. Criteria used to select the fisher-

men were that respondents should be migrant or

national fishers and have good experience of

migration. Fishermen who participated in the in-

depth interviews were selected using random

sampling techniques that met the above criteria

(Figure 2). For key information, such as national

data on migrant fisheries, respondents were

selected using the choice sampling method. In

addition, once at the survey sites, the identifica-

tion of other fishermen was made possible by the

snowball method and the assistance of local fish-

eries officers. Contact with local agents was facil-

itated by our partnership with national research

institutes. A questionnaire was submitted to the

fishermen (migrants and nationals) in order to

collect the following information:

- Characterisation of migrant fishers (country of

origin, ethnic group, fishing gear used, geo-

graphical area of fishing, target species).

- Modalities of access to resources in the host

countries, local management measures, costs

of access (payment, licence or fishing permit).

- Estimation of pelagic fish caught between

2014 and 2018 by migrant fishers (see

approach above).

- Conflicts related to the presence of migrant

fishers (nature and extent of conflicts, perma-

nent or occasional frequency).

- Impacts of migrant fishing in host countries

(socio-cultural, economic and technological).

A pre-survey was carried out in September

2019 to identify the countries and ports of depar-

ture and reception of migrant fishers with fishing

administrations. This initial fieldwork also

enabled contacts to be made in the field and the

questionnaire to be tested and validated. The sur-

vey itself started in January 2020 and ended in

September 2021. It was interrupted between

March 2020 and January 2021 due to the Covid-

19 pandemic. The collection of qualitative data,

including the profile of migrant fishers, access

modalities, conflicts and impacts, was satisfacto-

ry with individual and group interviews. Howev-

er, the quantification of small pelagic catches by

migrant fishers required the development of a

specific methodology and was particularly time-

consuming.

To estimate volumes of catches by migrant’s

fishers, a direct and indirect estimation method

was used. The direct method consisted in seeking

data from national fisheries administrations. This

work made it possible to obtain information on

migrant fishing units and catches officially

declared in the countries of reception and depar-

ture of migrant fishers. Documents relating fish-

ing agreements between countries (e.g. Senegal

and Mauritania, Guinea), licences and fishing

permits issued were also direct sources for

obtaining data. However, it became apparent dur-

ing the fieldwork with administrations that fisher-

men can bias the data collection because they did

often declare the origin of catches. This led us to

carry out an indirect evaluation with fishermen

for comparison purposes. The indirect assessment

consisted in interviewing migrant fishers of dif-

ferent origins and from different fishing areas.

They were asked to provide an estimate of the

number of annual trips and the estimated catch

per trip. By multiplying the number of trips with

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

5Oceanographic Research Center of Dakar-Thiaroye (CRODT, Senegal), Department of Fisheries (DoF, Gambia), Oceanographic

Research Center of Abidjan (CRO, Ivory Coast), University of Abomey Calavi (UAC, Benin), University of Energy and Natural

Resources (UENR, Ghana), Center for Fisheries Investigation and Application (CIPA, Guinea-Bissau), Boussoura National Fisheries

Science Center (CNSHB, Guinea), Mauritanian Institute for Oceanographic Research and Fisheries (IMROP, Mauritania).

the estimated catch, it enabled us to calculate the

annual catch per fishing unit. This figure was then

multiplied by the number of migrant fishing units

from different host countries (provided by the

administrations) to obtain the total estimated

catch of small pelagic fish. In making these cal-

38 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

Figure 2. Methodological approach, data collection and validation process.

Data collection and information in the ﬁeld

Giving a deﬁnition to

migrant ﬁshermen on a

regional scale

Pre-survey with the ﬁsheries administration

of the different countries

Scientiﬁc literature on

migrant ﬁshers

September

2019

Between

January 2020

and September

2021

Total actors

interviewed

n = 298

Content of

the

questionnaire

Delphi method

Regional data harmonization and validation

workshop

Data manager

and

administration

n = 18

Migrant ﬁshers

n = 250

National ﬁshers

n = 30

Average catch of migrant’s

ﬁshers targeting small

pelagics 2008-2012

1. Identiﬁcation of ports of departure and reception of

migrant’s ﬁshers

2. Contact with migrant’s ﬁshers in the different countries

3. Testing and readjusting the questionnaires

4. Provision of data on landings of small pelagics by

migrants’ ﬁshers

5. Information on the number of migrant ﬁshing units

targeting small pelagics

1. Characterization of migrant ﬁshers (origin, ethnic

group, ﬁshing gear, target species)

2. Modalities of access to resources

3. Estimation of annual catches

4. Conﬂicts related to their presence

5. Impacts of migrant ﬁshers in ﬁshing countries

culations, account was taken of the seasonality of

migrant fishing activity and the changing annual

contexts, including the termination of fishing

agreements (e.g. in Senegal and Mauritania in

2017), and the significant fluctuation in fishing

authorisations (number of fishing licences and

permits) issued annually.

Cross-checking direct and indirect assessment

data revealed inconsistencies in national catch

statistics for migrant fisheries. These inconsisten-

cies led us to use the Delphi method (Table 1).

Thus, a regional workshop on migrant fisher’s

data was organised, bringing together all the

experts involved in data collection. This frame-

work allowed all inconsistencies to be removed

and data on catches of small pelagic fish by

migrant fishers to be validated.

Review of the literature

This research required an extensive review of

the literature on migrant fishers in West Africa.

The main objective of this literature review was

to highlight the achievements and to make a com-

parison. The work of Failler et al. (2020) provid-

ed volumes of small pelagic fish caught by

migrant fishers in West Africa over the period

2008-2012. These data were compared to the data

we collected in the field for the period 2014-

2018. This comparison allowed to assess the evo-

lution of the production of migrant fisheries. In

addition, the special issue from Failler and Fer-

raro (2021) helped identifying migration patterns

along the West African coast. Beyond migration

patterns, this special issue has been an important

source of the main migrants fishers’ situations

currently observed in the EEZs of West African

countries (Dème et al. 2021a; Failler and Ferraro

2021; Ly and David 2021; Nunan 2021; Sall et al.

2021). Given the limited scientific literature on

migrant fishers, the literature searches minimized

publication bias by including unpublished study

reports. The study reports of the RECARGAO

project6‘Study on the state of play and recent

evolution of migrations of artisanal fishermen in

the SRFC countries’ were mobilized in the frame-

work of this research. Indeed, these reports pro-

vide case studies of different countries of depar-

ture or reception migrants’ fishers in West Africa.

The information from the reports allowed for the

validation and confirmation of information

obtained in the field.

Overall, these secondary data produced by

national and regional researchers and institutions

have helped to reinforce our primary data from

the field surveys. The scientific literature com-

bined with field surveys provided us with a time

of data on migratory fisheries over a decade. This

was followed by a comparison of volumes of

pelagic fish landed and ways in which resources

were exploited and marketed. References cited

above have made it possible to retrace the history

of movements of migrant fishermen in West

Africa and to give an initial definition of migrato-

ry fishing.

Data analysis

Data analysis combined information of migra-

tory fishing obtained over the period 2008-2012

from the literature and that obtained over the peri-

od 2014-2018 from surveys. The database fol-

lows a nomenclature established according to

needs, including volume and value of catches of

small pelagics, ethnic groups involved, fishing

gears used and migrant fishing areas. Similarly,

the quantities paid into the various segments (pro-

duction, fish trade, artisanal and industrial pro-

cessing) were entered into the database. Esti-

mates of the two five-year periods were used to

assess the evolution or regression of the volumes

of various migrant small pelagic fishing sectors.

The value was obtained by multiplying the esti-

mate price per tonne by the estimated quantity

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

6https://www.cofish.org/www.cofish.org/knowledge-base/projects/wa-ngo-recargao/index.html.

40 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

Table 1. Access modality of migrant fishermen to pelagic resources in host countries. Information collected in the field from

September 2019 to September 2021.

Country of departure

Host country Senegal Ghana Guinea Sierra Leone

Mauritania

Gambia

Guinea-Bissau

Benin

The artisanal fishing

license is in place1.

The cost of the

fishing license was

116 EUR for

pirogues of less than

13 m and 150,000

EUR for pirogues of

more than 1 m. For

the so-called

artisanal pelagic

fishing concession,

access fees are 22

EUR year-1 artisanal

boat-1 in

Mauritania2.

Access to small

pelagic fish

resources, like all

other marine

resources, is free for

Senegalese migrant’s

fishers and is based

on a reciprocal

agreement between

Senegal and The

Gambia3.

Registration fee and

fishing license.

Purchase of an annual

fishing license

varying between 152

and 2,455 EUR

depending on the

power of the engine

(15, 40 and 60 HP).

Purchase of an annual

fishing license

varying between 152

and 2,455 EUR

depending on the

power of the engine

(15, 40 and 60 HP).

Landing fee4.

produced. The database also allowed the mapping

of the fishing grounds to the consumption

grounds. The percentage per segment was estab-

lished using the Delphi method. The application

of this percentage to the total production made it

possible to obtain the trade flows.

RESULTS

Main migrations of fishermen targeting small

pelagics in West Africa

Senegalese, Ghanaian, Sierra Leoneans and

Guinean fishing units largely dominated the

migratory fishery targeting small pelagics in West

Africa. With more than 350 fishing units present

in neighbouring coastal countries, three Sene-

galese migratory small pelagic fisheries were

identified between Mauritania and the Gambia.

Ghanaian fishermen were mainly present in the

EEZ of Benin and Côte d’Ivoire. Guinea appeared

to be a special case in that it was both a host and a

departure point. Thus, its hosted fishermen from

Sierra Leone targeting flat sardines,Ethmalosa

and jacks, and spread them out into the maritime

space of Guinea Bissau and the Gambia. In addi-

tion, Guinean fishermen shared Guinea-Bissau

waters with Sierra Leone fishermen (Figure 3).

Looking at the host countries and ethnic

groups, only the Wolofs (Guet Ndar) and the

Lebous (Bargny, Mbour and Saloum Island) from

Senegal exploited small pelagics in Mauritania.

Mauritania only received Senegalese fishermen.

In Benin and Côte d’Ivoire, only Fanti fishermen

from Ghana were present. Gambia and Guinea-

Bissau received two nationalities targeting small

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

Table 1. Continued.

Country of departure

Host country Senegal Ghana Guinea Sierra Leone

Ivory Cost Ghanaian fishing

units pay the same

annual license at the

same price as

national artisanal

units (46 EUR for

one year).

1Mauritania has opted to sign a convention on artisanal fishing with Senegal. The first convention was signed on 25 February

2001 and is renewed every year.

2Sidibeh 2019; Avadi et al. 2020.

3Senegalese purse seine units operating on behalf of fishmeal factories and assimilated to a Mauritanian fleet were concerned

by this concession.

4Line fishermen with 4 box boats (about 25 kg case-1) paid 0.23 EUR and the fishmonger paid 0.13 EUR per case. If the fish-

erman uses Avion dô and lands mackerel, tuna, trevally, Atlantic bumper and sardinella, he pays 1.53 EUR per 60 kg bucket if

the catch reaches 4 buckets. Users of Tohounga and Soovi paid 0.31 EUR per 10 kg bucket if the catch reaches 4 buckets.

5The cost of fishing permits is dynamic and varies from year to year. It averages around 765 EUR for longline encircling gillnets,

and can go up to 1,630 EUR for bottom encircling gillnets.

pelagics, namely the Soussous and Peuls from

Guinea and the Téminé,Bofa,Boké, Canakry

from Sierra Leone. Thus, nine migratory move-

ments characterized the migratory fishery target-

ing small pelagics in West Africa (Figure 3).

Main species of small pelagic fish targeted by

West African migrant fishers were flat and round

sardine, Ethmalosa, herring (Clupea harengus)

and jawfish, with a smaller proportion of macker-

el, mullet (Mugil cephalus) and barracuda (Sphy-

raena barracuda).

For the capture of these species, Senegalese

and Ghanaian fishermen mainly used drift nets

and purse seines. Very few Ghanaians used beach

seines in Benin and Côte d’Ivoire. Guinean and

Sierra Leonean fishermen targeted small pelagics

with encircling gillnets and they used longlines

for the specific capture of jawfish (Figure 3).

42 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

Figure 3. Main migratory channels targeting small pelagics in West Africa, characterization of ethnic groups and fishing tech-

niques.

Fishing

techniques

Ivory Coast

Benin

Mauritania

Guinea

Gambia

Guinea-

Bissau

Ethnicity or

group

Fanti

Ghana

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Guinea

Country of origin of migrant ﬁshers

Host country of migrant ﬁshermen

Number of migrant channels

Gill net - Purse seine

- Beach seine

Drift gillnet - Drift

gillnet - Purse seine

Encircling gillnet - Drift

gillnet - ‘fele fele’ - longline

for machoiron

Encircling gillnet

‘reggae’ type

Wolof’s (Guet -

Ndar), Lebous

(Bargny, Mbour

and Saloum

islands)

Soussou -

Peulh

Téminé,

Soussou,

Mandeyeni

Canakry,

Boffa,

Forécariah

and Boké

Migrant fishers were established in different fish-

ing areas in the host countries. For example, in

Mauritania, Senegalese fishermen were located in

the south of Nouakchott and in Nouadhibou. In

the Gambia, Senegalese and Gambian fishermen

frequented the same fishing grounds, notably at

the Northern border of Casamance and on the

Gambia River. In Guinea-Bissau, migrants casted

their nets in the Bijagos Archipelago, in Cacine

and in the southern regions. In Guinea, Sierra

Leoneans were present along the entire coastline

with the main fishing areas being Kalé bama in

Matakang (Salatougou, Khounyi and Souri nènè)

in the south, in the prefecture of Forécariah,

(Koba bama, Bokhi nènè and Koukoudé Yatagui)

in the north, in Boffa, Kamsar bama as far as

Alcatraz in Boké in the north-west, passing

through the Cap Verga area. They were also

found in the fishing areas around the city of

Conakry and the islands of Loos. In Côte

d’Ivoire, Ghanaian fishermen were located in San

Pedro, at the level of the Grands Ponts, in Gbôk-

lè, in Sud Comoé and in the autonomous district

of Abidjan. Finally, in Benin, Ghanaian fisher-

men targeted pelagic fish in Seme-Kpodji, Coto-

nou, Ouidah and Grand Popo.

Access modality and seasonality of production

of migrant fishers targeting small pelagics

The establishment of EEZs in the 1980s7has

put an end to the regime of free access to

resources. In terms of fishing, this translates into

the appropriation of fishing by the coastal state.

Migrant and foreign fishermen must now comply

with regulations of the country in question by

paying fishing fees and respecting the quotas

imposed. The host country can take all necessary

measures to ensure compliance with its laws

(boarding, fines and imprisonment). Thus,

modalities of access differ according to the host

country of the migrant fishers (Table 1).

Access to resources in the host countries of

migrant fishers is subject to payment, except for

the presence of Senegalese in Gambia, where

access is free under a reciprocal agreement. For

Ghanaian fishermen, their access to Beninese and

Ivorian waters is conditioned by very low fees

that do not exceed 50 EUR8. The same applies to

the Senegalese license to fish in Mauritanian

waters for only 115 EUR. Compared to other

countries, the license for access to Mauritanian

waters is particularly high at between 150 and

2,305 EUR for powerful engines of 60 HP or

more.

Catch volumes and values of the main migra-

tory small pelagic fisheries in West Africa

Overall, catches by migratory fisheries target-

ing small pelagics doubled over the decade 2008-

2018, from an estimated of 136,500 t over the

five-year period 2008-2012 to an estimated of

more than 324,500 t over the period 2014-2018

(Table 2).

In contrast, there has been a decline in the esti-

mates catch of the Guinean migrant fisheries.

Thus, Guinean catches in the Gambian EEZ fell

by 10,000 t from 13,000 t over the period 2008-

2012 to 3,000 t over the five-year period 2014-

2018. The same applies to the Guinean migrant

sector established in Guinea-Bissau (Table 2).

As well as volumes, the value of catches from

the migratory small pelagic fisheries has risen

considerably, from an estimated of 34,125,000

EUR over the period 2008-2012 to an estimated

value of over 97,350,000 EUR over the period

2014-2018. In addition to quantities, this increase

is also linked to an increase in the price per tonnes

in recent years (Table 2).

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

7An international convention on the Law of the Sea met in Montego Bay to recognize the sovereign rights of each coastal State over a

200-mile EEZ that it is responsible for managing (Article 56).

81 EUR =655,957 FCFA (XOF).

44 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

Table 2. Average catches and values of small pelagic (SP) migratory chains in West Africa over the five-year periods of 2008-

2012 and 2014-2018. N/A: data not available.

Average 2008-2012 Average 2014-2018 Average price Average price

per tonnes per tonnes

2008-2012 (EUR) 2014-2018 (EUR)

Nº Name of the Production Value Production Value

migrant SP (t) (EUR) (t) (EUR)

pathway

1 Guinean SP 13,000 3,250,000 3,000 900,000 250 300

migrant channel

in the Gambia

2 Senegalese SP 3,000 750,000 17,000 5,100,000 250 300

migrant channel

in the Gambia

3 Senegalese SP 77,000 19,250,000 150,000 45,000,000 250 300

migrant channel

in Mauritania

4 Senegalese SP 30,000 7,500,000 90,000 27,000,000 250 300

migrant channel

in Mauritania

5 Guinean SP 10,000 2,500,000 2,000 600,000 250 300

migrant channel

in Guinea-Bissau

6 Ghanaian SP N/A N/A 1,500 450,000 N/A 300

migrant channel

in Benin

7 Ghanaian SP N/A N/A 20,000 6,000,000 N/A 300

migrant channel

in Ivory Cost

8 Leonean SP 500 125,000 40,000 12,000,000 250 300

migrant channel

in Guinea

9 Leonean SP 3,000 750,000 1,000 300,000 250 300

migrant channel

in Guinea-Bissau

Total 136,500 34,125,000 324,500 97,350,000

Estimated catches from grey literature 2008-2012 (Failler 2020). Estimated catches between 2014-2018 from field surveys.

Forms of valorization and marketing of catch-

es from the migrant small pelagic sector in

West Africa

As indicated earlier, migrant fisheries targeting

small pelagics landed an estimated of 324,500 t

year-1 over the period 2014-2018. After this pri-

mary production, coastal pelagics were valorized

in different forms: fresh distribution (fishmon-

ger), artisanal processing, freezing, and industrial

processing into fishmeal and fish oil (Figure 4).

The largest production share to the local fish

trade was estimated over 155,700 t. Artisanal and

industrial processing share the remaining half.

The industrial processing market, established

mainly in Mauritania, Gambia and Senegal,

absorbs more than 28% of the production of the

migrant small pelagics sector, i.e. nearly 94,000 t.

The artisanal processing segment received an

estimated of 74,800 t annually over the period

under consideration (Figure 4).

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

Figure 4. Marketing of catches from migrant small pelagic fisheries in West Africa. Source: information collected in the field.

Primary distribution Final market

Direct circuit (ﬁnal market)Indirect circuit (ﬁshmonger)

Production

Average 2014-2018

Fishmonger

156,000 t

Local consumption

190,000 t

Exportation

134,500 t

Artisanal processing

75,000 t

Industrial processing

94,000 t

Migratory pathways

targeting small

pelagic

324,500 t

DISCUSSION

Increasing catch volumes of migrant fishers in

West Africa and the emergence of fishmeal

industries

The migratory fishery targeting small pelagics

is increasingly important in West Africa in terms

of volume and value of catches. As shown in the

results, production has doubled in less than a

decade. This growth is justified by the large quan-

tities of fish used in the fishmeal industries

(Péron et al. 2010; Corten et al. 2017; Malcorps et

al. 2019). This high demand for small pelagic fish

by the milling industry is linked to the growing

international demand for fishmeal by African

countries such as Nigeria and Ghana, European

and Asian countries (Asiedu et al. 2017; Malcorps

et al. 2019). Thus, migrant fishing is an important

supply mechanism for the fishmeal industries. A

Greenpeace study estimated the amount of small

pelagics processed in the fishmeal industries of

the Gambia, Senegal, and Mauritania at 500,000 t

(Belhabib et al. 2018; Thiaw and Stuart, 2022).

The study revealed that migrant fishers supplied

more than half of this amount. Thus, migrant fish-

ing is the main supply of raw materials for the

West African fish milling industry. Migrant fish-

ers insist that sale of their product to the fishmeal

industry has a double advantage. Firstly, the fish-

meal market is much more remunerative than the

fish consumer market, and secondly, fishmeal

factories ensure that the entire catch is sold

because they are not very demanding on the qual-

ity of the product (Tacon and Metian 2018;

Touron-Gardic et al. 2022). This is so because the

main reason for migration is economic profit,

which justifies the fact that the Senegalese small

pelagic sector supplying the fishmeal industries

in Nouadhibou and Nouakchott is the most

important in the sub-region in terms of volume

and value of production (Tacon and Metian

2018). The Mauritanian state seems to be satis-

fied with the relatively small number of artisanal

and industrial units, but the nationalization of

Senegalese rotary seines and the signing of agree-

ments with foreign industrialists has led to a ten-

fold increase in fish flour production (Touron-

Gardic et al. 2022). It has increased from 10,000

t in 2009 to more than 119,000 t in 2020 (op. cit.).

Senegalese and Ghanaian fishermen: main

actors in migrant fishing in West Africa

The analysis of results showed that Senegal is

the giant of the migrant fishery in the SRFC

countries, and Ghanaian fishermen are the main

actors of this migration of artisanal fishermen in

the Gulf of Guinea (March and Failler 2022).

Their supremacy is undeniable in Côte d’Ivoire,

with catches of small pelagic fish almost equal to

those taken by national artisanal fishers. Of the

estimated 40,000 t of small pelagic fish landed

annually by artisanal fishermen in Côte d’Ivoire

over the period 2014-2018, Ghanaian fishermen

accounted for half. Ghanaian catches of small

pelagics mainly supply the Ivorian artisanal pro-

cessing market. Field observations show that, by

repatriating their families to Côte d’Ivoire,

Ghanaians are an essential component of the arti-

sanal processing segment. They are active in fish

smoking and receive on estimated of more than

half of the production of Ghanaian fishermen in

Côte d’Ivoire (Failler 2014). There is a vertical

integration of the Ghanaian community in Côte

d’Ivoire, starting from production to marketing

and passing through different forms of valoriza-

tion (Asiedu et al. 2022a). Thus, landings of the

Ghanaian migrant fishery complement the very

low national artisanal production to fill the gap of

an ever-growing national demand. Had it not

been for the landings of Ghanaian migrant’s fish-

ers, Côte d’Ivoire’s recourse to pelagic fish

imports from Mauritania and Senegal would have

been much more important than it is at present

(Dème et al. 2020). As a result, the trade deficit in

46 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

fishery products would be much higher. Ghanaian

fishermen are also present in Benin, with a much

lower production than in Côte d’Ivoire, estimat-

ing 1,000 t of small pelagics over the five-year

period 2014-2018.

Impacts of migrant fishers on the local eco-

nomics of countries

Interviews with fisheries administrations

showed that the two major migrant fisheries in

West Africa have positive impacts on the fisheries

economy of the host countries because of their

significant and decisive contribution to the supply

of fresh fish to the processing and consumption

markets. Beyond these contributions, they have

mechanized the activity of artisanal fisheries in

the countries through the transfer of technology

(Dème et al. 2021b). Indeed, the arrival of Ghana-

ian fishermen with large dugout canoes equipped

with engines of 40 HP and more has revolution-

ized artisanal fishing in Côte d’Ivoire (Chavance

et al. 2016). Gradually, natives have abandoned

their small pirogues made from a single tree trunk

to adopt the Ghanaian model, which is more

robust and more widely adopted, especially with

the remoteness of the fishing areas noted in recent

years (Asiedu et al. 2017, 2022a). If the Sene-

galese purse seine has spread in West Africa,

especially in Mauritania and Gambia, it was due

to Senegalese migrant’s fishers (Dème et al.

2021a). Impacts are also to be appreciated from

the point of view of their contribution to local

economies. Indeed, access to fisheries is most

often subject to the purchase of a fishing license

or permit. Field surveys have shown that this cost

is higher for migrant’s fishers and, in some coun-

tries, falls in a distinctive category between for-

eign fishermen. This local economic contribution

is however difficult to quantify due to the lack of

control over the migrant fishing fleet and variable

costs of license payments. If today the significant

added value generated by the small pelagic econ-

omy in Mauritania is estimated at more than 116

million EUR, it has been deduced that more than

a third of this is contributed by Senegalese

migrant fishers (Touron-Gardic et al. 2022).

Overall, migrant fisheries in West Africa have

positive impacts to be appreciated in terms of

their contribution to the food security of coun-

tries, to local economies and to the supply of the

artisanal and industrial processing segment. Such

an important supply makes it possible to create

and maintain millions of jobs in the various West

African coastal countries. The supply of raw

material to the artisanal processing segment by

migrant fishers, particularly from Ghana, Guinea

and Senegal, keeps this segment alive in the face

of competition from the fishmeal industry and the

export market (frozen) (Moity-Maïzi 2006; Diouf

et al. 2022). Thus, migrant fishers constitute an

important lever for the supply of women proces-

sors. Migrant fishers thus contribute to the devel-

opment of policies for the financial empower-

ment of women, initiated in recent years in West

African countries.

Migrant fishers facing conflicts and ecological

changes: how to manage migrant fisheries in

West Africa?

Despite these positive impacts, field surveys

have uncovered about the existence of frequent

conflicts between migrant and indigenous fisher-

men in the exploitation of fisheries resources.

The efficiency of the fishing gear used by

migrants, their greater autonomy at sea and

access to fishing areas, their incursion into cer-

tain protected areas (MPAs), and their dominant

position in the village are often put forward as

the main source of these conflicts. Conflicts of

use between Ghanaian and Ivorian fishermen are

a typical example. Indeed, Ivorian artisanal fish-

ing was rather lagoon-based and was not prac-

ticed much in the maritime area. Ghanaian

migrant fishers have made the maritime area the

main fishing zone and in view of the large quan-

tities fished, the locals accuse them of being the

DÈME ET AL.: FISHERS’ MIGRATION IN THE SMALL PELAGIC FISHERY IN WEST AFRICA

cause of the scarcity of resources in the various

fishing areas. These same conflicts are also noted

in the Senegalese migratory channels of small

pelagics in Mauritania. Indeed, Mauritanian

purse seine fishermen try to regulate fishing trips

to adjust the supply of fish for a better landing

price. Information on the ground shows that, the

Senegalese (St. Louisian) community disassoci-

ated itself from the measure, arguing that no

clause regulating fishing effort is mentioned in

the fishing licenses granted to them. In order to

ensure a steady supply of fish products to the

Mauritanian market, the Mauritanian public

authorities in charge of fisheries supported the

argument of the Senegalese fishermen. These

same conflicts between natives and migrants are

extended to the protected areas. Thus, fishermen

from Sierra Leone and Guinea are accused of

violating the rules of the Orango National Park

(located in the south of the Bijagos archipelago

in Guinea-Bissau) (Failler et al. 2019). In the

same way, violations of Mauritania’s MPAs by

Senegalese fishermen are emphasized by Mauri-

tanian fishermen (Failler et al. 2019; Failler

2020). Thus, these conflicts are likely to be exac-

erbated in the coming years in view of the frantic

race for pelagic fish and the tensions surrounding

availability and marketing. They are also likely

to be exacerbated by the overexploitation of

small pelagics in West Africa and their vulnera-

bility to climate change (Failler 2014, 2020;

Thiaw et al. 2017). According to Hannesson et al.

(2006) and Pincinato et al. (2020), decadal cli-

mate change is occurring in West Africa and is

affecting the fish population, particularly the dis-

tribution and abundance of small pelagics. Since

2012, a downward trend in small pelagic produc-

tion has been observed; however, migrant fishers

have so far shown a strong capacity to adapt to

the changing natural, institutional and economic

environment (Binet et al. 2013). Notwithstand-

ing, this current resource situation and threats of

climate change call into question the basic logic

of migrant fishers based on increasing quantities

alone. Changes in migratory routes may occur in

the coming years as a measure of resilience

(Dème et al. 2021a). All these socio-economic,

biological and political issues discussed here

must necessarily inform the regional fisheries

commissions the design of regional management

policies for migratory fisheries.

CONCLUSIONS

The coastal countries of the West African

region must engage collectively in the manage-

ment of migrant fisheries. Thus, the two entities

in charge of fisheries management in West Africa,

the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC)

and the Fisheries Committee of the Central West

African Gulf of Guinea (FCWC), could serve as a

framework for the implementation of common

policies for the management of migrant fisher-

men. The objective of these policies will be to

reduce the opacity that exists around migrant

fishing.

The first step towards this should be to ensure

that catches of migrant fisheries are clearly spec-

ified in the national statistics of the countries

receiving the migrants and repatriating the fish.

This would allow countries to avoid the scientific

gaps noted in the indirect assessment of fisheries

potential. Secondly, there is a need to integrate

migrant fisheries into fisheries policies. Third, the

harmonization of the country management plans

of the two regional commissions would facilitate

this. To enhance this, the development of a

regional management plan for small pelagic

species integrating migratory fisheries could

serve as a pilot before being extended to other

fisheries. Fourth, such policies should also inte-

grate mechanisms for the social integration of

migrants and conflict management. Fifth and

final point, surveillance at regional level must be

strengthened. The prospect of developing a

migrant fishing license and harmonizing prices

48 MARINE AND FISHERY SCIENCES 36 (1): 31-52 (2023)

and access conditions to resources could be
envisaged. All of this would make it possible to
regulate migrant fishing and to monitor the mar-
keting of products for greater efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Management
and Resilience of Small Pelagic Transboundary
Fisheries in West Africa - GREPPAO project,
funded by the European Union under the
PESCAO program (EuropeAid/158370/DD/ACT
/Multi), and led by the University of Portsmouth.
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